آزمون های کارشناسی ارشد علوم ورزشی* زبان عمومی و تخصصی امتحانات 94-86 - بخش (3)

Women`s competition in sports has been frowned upon by many societies in the past. The English public-school background of organized sport in the 19th and early 20th century led to a paternalism that tended to discourage women`s involvement in sports, with, for example, no women officially competing in the 1896 Olympic Games. The 20th century saw major advances in the participation of women in sports, although women`s participation as fans, administrators, officials, coaches, journalists, and athletes remains in general less than men`s. Mass involvement tends to favor sports such as swimming and aerobics, and tends to stress the competitive aspects less than men. The increase has been partly related to the drive for more women`s rights. In the United States, female students` participation in sports was significantly boosted by the Title 9 Act in 1972; preventing gender discrimination and equal opportunity for women to participate in sport at all levels. Pressure from sports funding bodies has also improved gender equality in sports. For example the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the Leander Rowing Club (LRC) in England had both been male-only establishments since their founding in 1787 and 1818, respectively, but both opened their doors to female members at the end of the 20th century at least partially due to the requirements of the United Kingdom Lottery Sports Fund.

Women`s competition in sports has been frowned upon by many societies in the past. The English public-school background of organized sport in the 19th and early 20th century led to a paternalism that tended to discourage women`s involvement in sports, with, for example, no women officially competing in the 1896 Olympic Games. The 20th century saw major advances in the participation of women in sports, although women`s participation as fans, administrators, officials, coaches, journalists, and athletes remains in general less than men`s. Mass involvement tends to favor sports such as swimming and aerobics, and tends to stress the competitive aspects less than men. The increase has been partly related to the drive for more women`s rights. In the United States, female students` participation in sports was significantly boosted by the Title 9 Act in 1972; preventing gender discrimination and equal opportunity for women to participate in sport at all levels. Pressure from sports funding bodies has also improved gender equality in sports. For example the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the Leander Rowing Club (LRC) in England had both been male-only establishments since their founding in 1787 and 1818, respectively, but both opened their doors to female members at the end of the 20th century at least partially due to the requirements of the United Kingdom Lottery Sports Fund.

Women`s competition in sports has been frowned upon by many societies in the past. The English public-school background of organized sport in the 19th and early 20th century led to a paternalism that tended to discourage women`s involvement in sports, with, for example, no women officially competing in the 1896 Olympic Games. The 20th century saw major advances in the participation of women in sports, although women`s participation as fans, administrators, officials, coaches, journalists, and athletes remains in general less than men`s. Mass involvement tends to favor sports such as swimming and aerobics, and tends to stress the competitive aspects less than men. The increase has been partly related to the drive for more women`s rights. In the United States, female students` participation in sports was significantly boosted by the Title 9 Act in 1972; preventing gender discrimination and equal opportunity for women to participate in sport at all levels. Pressure from sports funding bodies has also improved gender equality in sports. For example the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the Leander Rowing Club (LRC) in England had both been male-only establishments since their founding in 1787 and 1818, respectively, but both opened their doors to female members at the end of the 20th century at least partially due to the requirements of the United Kingdom Lottery Sports Fund.

Women`s competition in sports has been frowned upon by many societies in the past. The English public-school background of organized sport in the 19th and early 20th century led to a paternalism that tended to discourage women`s involvement in sports, with, for example, no women officially competing in the 1896 Olympic Games. The 20th century saw major advances in the participation of women in sports, although women`s participation as fans, administrators, officials, coaches, journalists, and athletes remains in general less than men`s. Mass involvement tends to favor sports such as swimming and aerobics, and tends to stress the competitive aspects less than men. The increase has been partly related to the drive for more women`s rights. In the United States, female students` participation in sports was significantly boosted by the Title 9 Act in 1972; preventing gender discrimination and equal opportunity for women to participate in sport at all levels. Pressure from sports funding bodies has also improved gender equality in sports. For example the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the Leander Rowing Club (LRC) in England had both been male-only establishments since their founding in 1787 and 1818, respectively, but both opened their doors to female members at the end of the 20th century at least partially due to the requirements of the United Kingdom Lottery Sports Fund.

Depictions of ritual sporting events are seen in the Minoan art of Bronze Age Crete from approximately 2700 to 1450 BC, mainly involving religious bull-leaping and possibly bullfighting. Homer tells us that sport was practiced in Mycenaean times, between 1600 BC and ca. 1100 BC. In the Iliad there are extensive descriptions of funeral sports games held in honor of deceased warriors, and engaging in sports is described as the occupation of the noble and wealthy who have no need to do manual labor themselves. In the Odyssey, king Odysseus of Ithaca proves his royal status to king Alkinoos of the Phaiakes by showing his proficeincy in throwing the javelin. It was predictably in Greece that sports were first instituted formally, with the first Olympics recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, where they were celebrated until 393 AD. Initially a single sprinting event, the Olympics gradually expanded to include several (footraces), run in the nude or in armor, boxing , wrestling, pankration, chariot racing, long jump, javelin throw, and discus throw. A variety of informal and formal games were popular in Ancient Greece, with the most prestigious ones achieving Panhellenic status.