نمونه سوالات آزمون های کارشناسی ارشد مجموعه روانشناسی 1 متون روان شناسی به انگلیسی امتحانات 94-86 - بخش (4)

In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Saren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential psychotherapy, a method of therapy that operates on the belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual`s confrontation with the givens of existence. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety. Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns, and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning`s therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment, and he created a variation of existential psychotherapy called logo-therapy, a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one`s life), as opposed to Adler`s Nietzschean doctrine of will to power or Freud`s will to pleasure. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.

In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Saren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential psychotherapy, a method of therapy that operates on the belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual`s confrontation with the givens of existence. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety. Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns, and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning`s therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment, and he created a variation of existential psychotherapy called logo-therapy, a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one`s life), as opposed to Adler`s Nietzschean doctrine of will to power or Freud`s will to pleasure. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.

Although "lie detectors" are being used by governments. police departments, and businesses that all want guaranteed ways of detecting the truth, the results are not always accurate. Lie detectors are properly called emotion detectors, for their aim is to measure bodily changes that contradict what a person says. The polygraph machine records changes in heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and the electrical activity of the skin (galvanic skin response, or GSR). In the first part of the polygraph test, you are electronically connected to the machine and asked a few neutral questions ("What is your name?" "Where do you live?"). Your physical reactions serve as the standard (baseline) for evaluating what comes next. Then you are asked a few critical questions among the neutral ones ("When did you rob the bank?"). The assumption is that if you are guilty. yow· body will reveal the truth. even if you try to deny it. Your heart rate, respiration. and GSR will change abruptly as you respond to the incriminating questions. That is the theory; but psychologists have found that lie detectors are simply not reliable. Since most physical changes are the same across all emotions. machines cannot tell whether you are feeling guilty, angry, nervous. thrilled, or revved up from an exciting day. Innocent people may be tense and nervous about the whole procedure. They may react physiologically to a certain word ("batlk") not because they robbed it, but because they recently bounced a check. In either case the machine will record a "lie." The reverse mistake is also common. Some practiced liars can lie without flinching. and others learn to beat the machine by tensing muscles or thinking about an exciting experience during neutral questions.

Although "lie detectors" are being used by governments. police departments, and businesses that all want guaranteed ways of detecting the truth, the results are not always accurate. Lie detectors are properly called emotion detectors, for their aim is to measure bodily changes that contradict what a person says. The polygraph machine records changes in heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and the electrical activity of the skin (galvanic skin response, or GSR). In the first part of the polygraph test, you are electronically connected to the machine and asked a few neutral questions ("What is your name?" "Where do you live?"). Your physical reactions serve as the standard (baseline) for evaluating what comes next. Then you are asked a few critical questions among the neutral ones ("When did you rob the bank?"). The assumption is that if you are guilty. yow· body will reveal the truth. even if you try to deny it. Your heart rate, respiration. and GSR will change abruptly as you respond to the incriminating questions. That is the theory; but psychologists have found that lie detectors are simply not reliable. Since most physical changes are the same across all emotions. machines cannot tell whether you are feeling guilty, angry, nervous. thrilled, or revved up from an exciting day. Innocent people may be tense and nervous about the whole procedure. They may react physiologically to a certain word ("batlk") not because they robbed it, but because they recently bounced a check. In either case the machine will record a "lie." The reverse mistake is also common. Some practiced liars can lie without flinching. and others learn to beat the machine by tensing muscles or thinking about an exciting experience during neutral questions.

Although "lie detectors" are being used by governments. police departments, and businesses that all want guaranteed ways of detecting the truth, the results are not always accurate. Lie detectors are properly called emotion detectors, for their aim is to measure bodily changes that contradict what a person says. The polygraph machine records changes in heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and the electrical activity of the skin (galvanic skin response, or GSR). In the first part of the polygraph test, you are electronically connected to the machine and asked a few neutral questions ("What is your name?" "Where do you live?"). Your physical reactions serve as the standard (baseline) for evaluating what comes next. Then you are asked a few critical questions among the neutral ones ("When did you rob the bank?"). The assumption is that if you are guilty. yow· body will reveal the truth. even if you try to deny it. Your heart rate, respiration. and GSR will change abruptly as you respond to the incriminating questions. That is the theory; but psychologists have found that lie detectors are simply not reliable. Since most physical changes are the same across all emotions. machines cannot tell whether you are feeling guilty, angry, nervous. thrilled, or revved up from an exciting day. Innocent people may be tense and nervous about the whole procedure. They may react physiologically to a certain word ("batlk") not because they robbed it, but because they recently bounced a check. In either case the machine will record a "lie." The reverse mistake is also common. Some practiced liars can lie without flinching. and others learn to beat the machine by tensing muscles or thinking about an exciting experience during neutral questions.